How to recognise manipulation

Manipulative content rarely lies outright — more often it bends the way things are presented. Research distinguishes 23 persuasion techniques (SemEval-2023 Task 3), which we use both in human annotation and in the AI classifier. Knowing them is the best defence.

The canonical wording of the schema and codebook is Slovak; the English technique definitions below are translations kept in sync with the canon by an automated drift guard.

Illustrative example

The text is synthetically created for educational purposes — it is not real content.

“The so-called experts from Brussels are once again dictating what we should eat. Every normal person knows this is nonsense. Either we push back now, or in a year there will be nothing left to defend!”
  • Name_Calling-Labeling — “so-called experts” (a label instead of an argument)
  • Appeal_to_Popularity — “every normal person knows” (the crowd instead of evidence)
  • False_Dilemma-No_Choice — “either…, or…” (only two options)
  • Appeal_to_Time — “now or never” (urgency pressure)

Attack on reputation

The target is not the argument but a person or an institution.

  • Name_Calling-Labeling

    Name Calling / Labeling — labelling the object with a term the audience hates or adores — Name-calling, Labeling, Demonizing the enemy, Stereotyping

  • Doubt

    Doubt — questioning the credibility of a person/institution without evidence — (part of FUD)

  • Guilt_by_Association

    Guilt by Association — discrediting through association with a hated person/group — Guilt by association

  • Appeal_to_Hypocrisy

    Appeal to Hypocrisy — “you did it too” — attacking the opponent's consistency — (absent in DIMARL)

  • Questioning_the_Reputation

    Questioning the Reputation — attacking reputation/credentials rather than the argument — Smears, Ad hominem, False accusations

Justification

The claim leans on authority, the crowd, values or fear — not on evidence.

  • Appeal_to_Authority

    Appeal to Authority — the claim is true because an authority says so — Appeal to authority, Testimonial, Third party technique

  • Appeal_to_Popularity

    Appeal to Popularity — “everyone does it” / the majority supports it — Bandwagon

  • Appeal_to_Values

    Appeal to Values — an appeal to shared values (freedom, homeland…) — Glittering generalities, Virtue words

  • Appeal_to_Fear-Prejudice

    Appeal to Fear / Prejudice — evoking fear/prejudice instead of an argument — Appeal to fear, Appeal to prejudice

  • Flag_Waving

    Flag Waving — an appeal to patriotism / group identity — Flag-waving

Distraction

Instead of an answer, the topic changes.

  • Straw_Man

    Straw Man — distorting the opponent's position into an easier target — Straw man

  • Red_Herring

    Red Herring — diverting attention to an irrelevant topic — Red herring

  • Whataboutism

    Whataboutism — a counter-accusation instead of an answer — Whataboutism

Simplification

Complex reality is reduced to a falsely simple picture.

  • Causal_Oversimplification

    Causal Oversimplification — a single cause for a complex phenomenon — Oversimplification

  • False_Dilemma-No_Choice

    False Dilemma / No Choice — only two options, as if no others existed — Black-and-white fallacy

  • Consequential_Oversimplification

    Consequential Oversimplification — “if A, the chain B, C, D inevitably follows” (slippery slope) — (absent in DIMARL)

Call

Pressure to act now and not to think.

  • Slogans

    Slogans — a short, punchy catchphrase instead of an argument — Slogans

  • Appeal_to_Time

    Appeal to Time — “now or never” — urgency pressure — (absent in DIMARL)

  • Conversation_Killer

    Conversation Killer — a phrase that shuts down the discussion — Thought-terminating cliché

Manipulative wording

The language itself manipulates — emotion, repetition, fog.

  • Loaded_Language

    Loaded Language — emotionally charged words — Loaded language, Dysphemism, Euphemism

  • Repetition

    Repetition — repeating the same message over and over — Repetition / Ad nauseam

  • Exaggeration-Minimisation

    Exaggeration / Minimisation — inflating or downplaying — Exaggeration, Minimisation

  • Obfuscation-Vagueness-Confusion

    Obfuscation – Vagueness / Confusion — deliberate vagueness/confusion — Obfuscation, Intentional vagueness

The full annotation schema, including these techniques, is described in the methodology.